Luận văn;luận văn thạc sĩ;luận án tiến sĩ;tài liệu; khóa luận tốt nghiệp; báo cáo khoa học;đồ án tốt nghiệp;khoán luận 23052015083813

Fourth edition
A Practical
English
Grammar
A. J. Thomson
A. V. Martinet
Oxford University Press
A Practical English Grammar 1
Oxford University Press Walton Street, Oxford 0X2 6DP
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© Oxford University Press 1960, 1969, 1980, 1986
First published 1960 (reprinted seven times)
Second edition 1969 (reprinted ten times)
Third edition 1980 (reprinted eight times)
Fourth edition 1986
Second impression 1986
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A Practical English Grammar 2
Preface to the fourth edition
A Practical English Grammar is intended for intermediate and post-intermediate students. We hope
that more advanced learners and teachers will also find it useful.
The book is a comprehensive survey of structures and forms, written in clear modem English and
illustrated with numerous examples. Areas of particular difficulty have been given special attention.
Differences between conversational usage and strict grammatical forms are shown but the emphasis
is on conversational forms.
In the fourth edition the main changes are as follows:
1 Explanations and examples have been brought up to date.
2 There is now more information on countable and uncountable nouns, attributive and predicative
adjectives, adverbs of place, sentence adverbs, cleft sentences, prepositions, conjunctions,
modal verbs, perfect tenses, infinitive constructions, the passive purpose clauses and noun
clauses.
3 Some material has been rearranged to make comparisons easier. For example, parts of
chapters on can, may, must etc. are now grouped by function; verbs of liking and preference
have a chapter to themselves; suggestions and invitations have joined the chapter on
commands, requests and advice.
4 The contents list new summarises every section heading, and there is a new index containing
many more entries and references.
In this edition the sign ‘∼’ is frequently used to denote a change of speaker in examples of dialogue.
Note also that although the sign ‘=‘ sometimes connects two words or expressions with the same
meaning, it is often used more freely, e.g. to indicate a transformation from active to passive or direct
to indirect speech.
We wish to thank all at Oxford University Press who have assisted in the preparation of the fourth
edition. We would also like to thank Professor Egawa of Nihon University, Japan, Professor René
Dirven of Duisburg University, West Germany and other colleagues for their friendly and helpful
suggestions.
London, November 1985 A.J.T., A.VM.
A Practical English Grammar 3
Contents
References are to sections, unless otherwise stated.
1 Articles and one, a little/ a few, this, that page 9 fairly, rather, quite, hardly etc.
a/an (the indefinite article) 1 fairly and rather 42
Use of a/an 2 quite 43
Omission of a/an 3 hardly, scarcely, barely 44
a/an and one 4
a little/a few and little/few 5 Inversion of the verb
the (the definite article) 6 Inversion after certain adverbs 45
Omission of the 7
Omission of the before home etc. 8 5 all, each, every, both, neither, either, some, any,
no, none page 64
This/these, that/those 9 all, each, every, everyone etc. 46
both 47
2 Nouns page 16 all/both/each + of etc. 48
Kinds and function 10 neither, either 49
Gender 10 some, any, no and none 50
Plurals 12 someone, anyone, no one etc. 51
Uncountable nouns 13 else after someone/anybody etc. 52
Form of possessive case 14 another, other etc. with one, some 53
Use of possessive case etc. 15
Compound nouns 16 6 Interrogatives: wh-? words and how? page 71
Interrogative adjectives and pronouns 54
3 Adjectives page 23 Affirmative verb after who etc. 55
Kinds of adjectives 17 who, whom, whose, which, what 56
Position of adjectives 18 who, whom, which and what as objects of
prepositions 57
Order of adjectives of quality 19 Uses of what 58
Comparison 20 which compared with who, what 59
Constructions with comparisons 21 Interrogative adverbs:
than/as + pronoun + auxiliary 22 why, when, where, how 60
the + adjective 23 ever after who, what etc. 61
Adjectives + one/ones etc. 24
many and much 25 7 Possessive, personal and reflexive pronouns: my,
mine, I, myself etc. page 75
Adjectives + infinitives 26 Possessive adjectives and pronouns 62
Adjectives + various constructions 27 Agreement and use of possessive adjectives 63
Possessive pronouns replacing possessive
adjectives + nouns 64
4 Adverbs page 47 Personal pronouns 65
Kinds of adverbs 28 Position of pronoun objects 66
Use of it 67
Form and use Indefinite pronouns 68
Formation of adverbs with Iy 29 Use of they/them/their with, neither/either, someone
etc. 69
Adverbs and adjectives with Reflexive pronouns 70
the same form 30 Emphasizing pronouns 71
Comparative and superlative 31
far, farther/farthest etc. 32 8 Relative pronouns and clauses page 81
much, more, most 33 Defining relative clauses 72
Constructions with comparisons 34 Relative pronouns used in defining clauses 73
Defining clauses: persons 74
Position Defining clauses: things 75
Adverbs of manner 35 Cleft sentences 76
Adverbs of place 36 Relative clause replaced by infinitive or participle 77
Adverbs of time 37 Non-defining relative clauses 78
Adverbs of frequency 38 Non-defining clauses: persons 79
Order of adverbs 39 all, both, few, most, several etc. + of whom/which 80
Sentence adverbs 40 Non-defining clauses: things 81
Adverbs of degree 41 Connective relative clauses 82
A Practical English Grammar 4
Contents
what (relative pronoun) and which (connective Have as an auxiliary verb
relative) 83
Commas in relative clauses 84 Form, and use 118
whoever, whichever etc. 85 have + object + past participle 119
had better + bare infinitive 120
9 Prepositions page 91 have. object + present participle 121
Introduction 86
Alternative position 87 have as an ordinary verb
Omission of to and for before indirect objects 88 have meaning ‘possess’ 122
Use and omission of to with verbs of communication have meaning ‘take’, ‘give’ 123
89
Time and date: at, on, by etc. 90
Time: from, since, for etc. 91 do
Time: to, till/until, after, afterwards (adverb) 92 Form 124
Travel and movement: from, to, at, in, by, on, into etc. do used as an auxiliary 125
93
at in; in, into; on, onto 94 do used as an ordinary verb 126
above, over, under etc. 95
Prepositions used with adjectives and participles 96 12 may and can for permission and possibility page
128
Verbs and prepositions 97 Permission
Gerunds after prepositions 98 may for permission: forms 127
Prepositions/adverbs 99 can for permission: forms 128
may and can used for permission in the present or
future 129
10 introduction to verbs page 105 could or was/were allowed to for permission in the
past 130
Classes of verbs 100 Requests for permission 131
Ordinary verbs Possibility
Principal parts 101 May/might for possibility 132
Active tenses 102 May/might + perfect infinitive 133
Negatives of tenses 103 could or may/might 134
Interrogative for questions and requests 104 can for possibility 135
Negative interrogative 105
13 can and be able for ability page 134
Auxiliary verbs can and be able: forms 136
Auxiliaries and modals 106 Can/am able, could/was able 137
Forms and patterns 107 could + perfect infinitive 138
Use of auxiliaries in short answers, agreements etc. 14 ought, should, must, have to, need for obligation
page 137
In short answers 108 ought: forms 139
Agreements and disagreements 109 should: forms 140
Question tags 110 ought/should compared to must and have to 141
Comment tags 111 ought/should with the continuous infinitive 142
Additions to remarks 112 ought/should with the perfect infinitive 143
must and have to: forms 144
11 be, have, do page 116 must and have to: difference 145
need not and must not in the present and future 146
be as an auxiliary verb need not, must not and must in the present and
future 147
Form and use 113 need: forms 148
be + infinitive 114 Absence of obligation 149
need not and other forms 150
be as an ordinary verb must, have to and need in the interrogative 151
be to denote existence, be + adjective 115 needn’t + perfect infinitive 152
There is/are/was/were etc. 116 Needn’t have (done) and didn’t have/need (to do)
153
it is and there is compared 117 needn’t, could and should + perfect infinitive 154
to need meaning ‘require’ 155
A Practical English Grammar 5
Contents
15 must, have, will and should for deduction and In time clauses 195
assumption page 147
must for deduction 156 In indirect speech 196
must compared to may/might 157 The past perfect continuous tense Form and use
197
have/had for deduction 158
can't and couldn't used for negative deduction 159 19 The future page 180
will and should: assumption 160 Future forms 198
The simple present 199
16 The auxiliaries dare and used page 150 Future with intention 200
dare 161 will + infinitive 201
used 162 The present continuous 202
to be/become/get used to 163 The be going to form 203
be going to used for intention 204
17 The present tenses page 153 be going to and will + infinitive to express intention
205
The present continuous be going to used for prediction 206
Form 164 The future simple 207
Present participle: spelling 165 First person will and shall 208
Uses 166 Uses of the future simple 209
Other possible uses 167 will contrasted with want/wish/would tike 210
Verbs not normally used 168 The future continuous tense 211
feel, look, smell and taste 169 The future continuous used as an ordinary
continuous tense 212
see and hear 170 The future continuous used to express future without
intention 213
think, assume and expect 171 The future continuous and will + infinitive compared
214
The simple present tense Various future forms 215
Form 172 The future perfect and the future perfect continuous
216
Used for habitual action 173
Other uses 174 20 The sequence of tenses page 195
Subordinate clauses 217
18 The past and perfect tenses page 161 The sequence of tenses 218
The simple past tense Form 175
Irregular verbs: form 176 21 The conditional page 196
Use for past events 177 The conditional tenses
The past continuous tense The present conditional tense 219
Form 178 The perfect conditional tense 220
Main uses 179 Conditional sentences
Other uses 180 Conditional sentences type 1 221
Past continuous or simple past 181 Conditional sentences type 2 222
The present perfect tense Conditional sentences type 3 223
Form and use 182 will/would and should 224
Use with just 183 if + were and inversion 225
Past actions: indefinite time 184 if, even if, whether, unless, but for, otherwise etc.
226
Actions in an incomplete period 185 if and in case 227
Actions lasting throughout an incomplete period 186 if only 228
Use with for and since 187 In indirect speech 229
it is + period + since + past or perfect tense 188
Present perfect and simple past 189 22 Other uses of will/would, shall/should page 206
The present perfect continuous tense Habits expressed by will, would 230
Form 190 should/would think + that-clause or so/not 231
Use 191 would for past intention 232
Comparison of the present perfect shall I/we? 233
simple and continuous 192 shall: second and third persons 234
Some more examples 193 that...should 235
The past perfect tense it is/was + adjective + that... should 236
Form and use 194 Other uses of should 237
A Practical English Grammar 6
Contents
23 The infinitive page 212 27 Commands, requests, invitations, advice,
suggestions page 245
Form 238 The imperative for commands 281
Uses of the infinitive 239 Other ways of expressing commands 282
The infinitive as subject 240 Requests with can/could/may/might I/we 283
As object or complement 241 Requests with could/will/would you etc. 284
Verb + how/what etc. + infinitive 242 Requests with might 285
Infinitive after verb or verb + object 243 Invitations 286
Infinitive after verb +• object 244 Advice forms 287
Infinitive after verbs of knowing and thinking etc. 245 Advice with may/might as well + infinitive 288
The bare infinitive 246 Suggestions 289
Infinitive represented by to 247
Split infinitives 248 28 The subjunctive page 253
Infinitive as connective link 249 Form 290
Infinitive used to replace a relative clause 250 Use of the present subjunctive 291
Infinitive after certain nouns 251 as if etc. + past subjunctive 292
After too, enough, so... as 252 it is time + past subjunctive 293
Infinitive phrases 253
The continuous infinitive 254 29 care, like, love, hate, prefer, wish page 255
The perfect infinitive 255 care and like 294
Perfect infinitive continuous 256 care, like, love, hate, prefer 295
would like and want 296
24 The gerund page 228 would rather/sooner and prefer/would prefer 297
Form and use 257 More examples of preference 298
The gerund as subject 258 wish, want and would like 299
Gerunds after prepositions 259 wish + subject + unreal past 300
The word to 260 wish (that) + subject + would 301
Verbs followed by the gerund 261
Verbs + possessive adjective/pronoun object + 30 The passive voice page 263
gerund 262
The verb mind 263 Form 302
The perfect gerund 264 Active and passive equivalents 303
The passive gerund 265 Uses of the passive 304
Prepositions with passive verbs 305
25 Infinitive and gerund constructions page 234 Infinitive constructions after passive verbs 306
Verbs + infinitive or gerund 266
Verbs + infinitive or gerund without change of 31 Indirect speech page 269
meaning 267
regret, remember, forget 268 Direct and indirect speech 307
agree/agree to, mean. propose 269 Statements in indirect speech:
go on, stop, try. used (to) 270 tense changes necessary 308
be afraid (of), be sorry (for) be ashamed (of) 271 Past tenses 309
Unreal past tenses 310
26 The participles page 239 might, ought to, should, would, used to in indirect
statements 311
Present (or active) participle 272 could in indirect statements 312
After verbs of sensation 273 Pronoun and adjective 313
catch, find, leave + object + present participle 274 Expressions of time and place 314
go, come, spend, waste etc. 275 Infinitive and gerund 315
A present participle phrase replacing a main clause say, tell, etc, 316
276
A present participle phrase replacing a subordinate Questions in indirect speech 317
clause 277
Perfect participle (active) 278 Questions beginning shall I/we? 318
Part participle (passive) and perfect participle Questions beginning will you/would you/could
(passive) 279 you? 319
Misrelated participles 280 Commands, requests, advice 320
Other ways of expressing indirect commands 321
let's, let us, let him/them 322
Exclamations and yes and no 323
Indirect speech: mixed types 324
A Practical English Grammar 7
Contents
must and needn't 325
32 Conjunctions page 288
Co-ordinating conjunctions 326
besides, so, still, yet etc. 327
Subordinating conjunctions 328
though/although, in spite of, despite 329
for and because 330
when, while, as to express time 331
as meaning when/while or because/since 332
as, when, while used to mean although, but,
seeing that 333
33 Purpose page 294
Purpose expressed by infinitive 334
Infinitives after go and come 335
Clauses of purpose 336
in case and lest 337
34 Clauses of reason, result, concession,
comparison, time page 298
Reason and result/cause 338
Result with such/so ... that 339
Clauses of concession 340
Clauses of comparison 341
Time clauses 342
35 Noun clauses page 303
Noun clauses as subject 343
that-clauses after certain adjectives/participles 344
that-clauses after nouns 345
Noun clauses as objects 346
so and not representing athat-clause 347
36 Numerals, dates, and weights and measures page
307
Cardinal numbers 348
Points about cardinal numbers 349
Ordinal numbers 350
Points about ordinal numbers 351
Dates 352
Weights, length, liquids 353
37 Spelling rules page 311
Introduction 354
Doubling the consonant 355
Omission of a final e 356
Words ending in ce and ge 357
The suffix ful 358
Words ending in y 359
ie and ei 360
Hyphens 361
38 Phrasal verbs page 315
Introduction 362
Verb + preposition/adverb 363
39 List of irregular verbs page 353
Irregular verbs 364 Index page 359
A Practical English Grammar 8
1 Articles and one, a little/a few, this, that
1 a/an (the indefinite article)
The form a is used before a word beginning with a consonant, or a vowel with a consonant sound:
a man a had a university a European
a one-way street
The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or words beginning with a
mute h:
an apple an island an uncle
an egg an onion an hour
or individual letters spoken with a vowel sound:
an L-plate an MP an SOS an ‘x’
a/an is the same for all genders:
a man a woman an actor an actress a table
2 Use of a/an
a/an is used:
A Before a singular noun which is countable (i.e. of which there is more than one) when it is
mentioned for the first time and represents no particular person or thing:
I need a visa. They live in a flat. He bought an ice-cream.
B Before a singular countable noun which is used as an example of a class of things:
A car must be insured
All cars/Any car must be insured.
A child needs love
All children need/Any child needs love.
C With a noun complement. This includes names of professions:
It was an earthquake. She’ll be a dancer. He is an actor.
D In certain expressions of quantity:
a lot of a couple
a great many a dozen (but one dozen is also possible)
a great deal of
E With certain numbers:
a hundred a thousand (See 349.)
Before half when half follows a whole number;
1 ½ kilos = one and a half kilos or a kilo and a half
But ½ kg = half a kilo (no a before half), though a + half + noun is sometimes possible:
a half-holiday a half-portion a half-share
With 1/3, ¼, 1/5 etc. a is usual: a third, a quarter etc., but one is also possible. (See 350.)
F In expressions of price, speed, ratio, etc.:
5p a kilo £1 a metre sixty kilometres an hour
10 p a dozen four times a day
(Here a/an = per)
G In exclamations before singular, countable nouns:
Such a long queue! What a pretty girl! But
Such long queues! What pretty girls!
(Plural nouns, so no article. See 3.)
H a can be placed before Mr/Mrs/Miss + surname:
a Mr Smith a Mrs Smith a Miss Smith a Mr Smith
A Practical English Grammar 9
means 'a man called Smith' and implies that he is a stranger to the speaker. Mr Smith, without
a, implies that the speaker knows Mr Smith or knows of his existence.
(For the difference between a/an and one, see 4. For a few and a little, see 5.)
3 Omission of a/an
a/an is omitted;
A Before plural nouns.
a/an has no plural form. So the plural of a dog is dogs, and of an egg is eggs.
B Before uncountable nouns (see 13).
C Before names of meals, except when these are preceded by an adjective:
We have breakfast at eight.
He gave us a good breakfast.
The article is also used when it is a special meal given to celebrate something or in someone's
honour:
I was invited to dinner (at their house, in the ordinary way) but
I was invited to a dinner given to welcome the new ambassador.
4 a/an and one
A a/an and one (adjective)
1 When counting or measuring time, distance, weight etc. we can use either a/an or one for the
singular:
£1 = a/one pound £1,000,000 = a/one million pounds (See chapter 36.)
But note that in The rent is £100 a week the a before week is not replaceable by one (see 2 F).
In other types of statement a/an and one are not normally interchangeable, because one + noun
normally means 'one only/not more than one' and a/an does not mean this:
A shotgun is no good. (It is the wrong sort of thing.)
One shotgun is no good. (I need two or three.)
2 Special uses of one
(a) one (adjective/pronoun) used with another/others:
One (boy) wanted to read, another /others wanted to watch TV.
(See 53.)
One day he wanted his lunch early, another day he wanted it late.
(b) one can be used before day/week/month/year/summer/winter etc. or before the name of the
day or month to denote a particular time when something happened:
One night there was a terrible storm.
One winter the snow fell early.
One day a telegram arrived.
(c) one day can also be used to mean 'at some future date':
One day you'll be sorry you treated him so badly.
(Some day would also be possible.)
(For one and you, see 68.)
B a/an and one (pronoun)
one is the .pronoun equivalent of a/an:
Did you get a ticket? ~ Yes, I managed to get one.
The plural of one used in this way is some:
Did you get tickets? ~ Yes, I managed to get some.
5 a little/a few and little/few
A a little/little (adjectives) are used before uncountable nouns:
a little salt/little salt
a few/few (adjectives) are used before plural nouns:
a few people/few people
All four forms can also be used as pronouns, either alone or with of:
Sugar? ~ A little, please.
Only a few of these are any good.
A Practical English Grammar 10
B a little, a few (adjectives and pronouns)
a little is a small amount, or what the speaker considers a small amount, a few is a small
number, or what the speaker considers a small number.
only placed before a little/a few emphasises that the number or amount really is small in the
speaker's opinion:
Only a few of our customers have accounts.
But quite placed before a few increases the number considerably:
I have quite a few books on art. (quite a lot of books)
C little and few (adjectives and pronouns)
little and few denote scarcity or lack and have almost the force of a negative:
There was little time for consultation.
Little is known about the side-effects of this drug.
Few towns have such splendid trees.
This use of little and few is mainly confined to written English (probably because in
conversation little and few might easily be mistaken for a little/a few). In conversation,
therefore, little and few are normally replaced by hardly any. A negative verb + much/many
is also possible:
We saw little = We saw hardly anything/We didn't see much.
Tourists come here but few stay overnight =
Tourists come here but hardly any stay overnight.
But little and few can be used more freely when they are qualified by so, very, too.
extremely, comparatively, relatively etc. fewer (comparative) can also be used more freely.
I'm unwilling to try a drug I know so little about.
They have too many technicians, we have too few.
There are fewer butterflies every year.
D a little/little (adverbs)
1 a little can be used:
(a) with verbs: It rained a little during the night.
They grumbled a little about having to wait.
(b) with 'unfavourable' adjectives and adverbs:
a little anxious a little unwillingly
a little annoyed a little impatiently
(c) with comparative adjectives or adverbs:
The paper should be a little thicker.
Can't you walk a little faster?
rather could replace a little in (b) and can also be used before comparatives (see 42),
though a little is more usual. In colloquial English a bit could be used instead of a little in all
the above examples.
2 little is used chiefly with better or more in fairly formal style:
His second suggestion was little (= not much) better than his first.
He was little (= not much) more than a child when his father died.
It can also, in formal English, be placed before certain verbs, for example expect, know.
suspect, think:
He little expected to find himself in prison.
He little thought that one day . . .
Note also the adjectives little-known and little-used:
a little-known painter a little-used footpath
6 the (the definite article)
A Form
the is the same for singular and plural and for all genders:
the boy the girl the day
the boys the girls the days
B Use
The definite article is used:
1 When the object or group of objects is unique or considered to be unique:
the earth the sea the sky the equator the stars
A Practical English Grammar 11
2 Before a noun which has become definite as a result of being mentioned a second time:
His car struck a tree; you can still see the mark on the tree.
3 Before a noun made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause:
the girl in blue the man with the banner
the boy that I met the place where I met him
4 Before a noun which by reason of locality can represent only one particular thing:
Ann is in the garden, (the garden of this house)
Please pass the wine, (the wine on the table)
Similarly: the postman (the one who comes to us), the car (our car), the newspaper (the one
we read).
5 Before superlatives and first, second etc. used as adjectives or pronouns, and only:
the first (week) the best day the only way
C the + singular noun can represent a class of animals or things:
The whale is in danger of becoming extinct.
The deep-freeze has made life easier for housewives.
But man, used to represent the human race, has no article:
If oil supplies run out, man may have to fall back on the horse.
the can be used before a member of a certain group of people:
The small shopkeeper is finding life increasingly difficult.
the + singular noun as used above takes a singular verb. The pronoun is he, she or it:
The first-class traveller pays more so he expects some comfort.
D the + adjective represents a class of persons:
the old = old people in general (see 23)
E the is used before certain proper names of seas, rivers, groups of islands, chains of
mountains, plural names of countries, deserts, regions:
the Atlantic the Netherlands
the Thames the Sahara
the Azores the Crimea
the Alps the Riviera
and before certain other names:
the City the Mall the Sudan
the Hague the Strand the Yemen
the is also used before names consisting of noun + of + noun:
the Bay of Biscay the Gulf of Mexico
the Cape of Good Hope the United States of America
the is used before names consisting of adjective + noun (provided the adjective is not east,
west etc.):
the Arabian Gulf the New Forest the High Street
the is used before the adjectives east/west etc. + noun in certain names:
the East/West End the East/West Indies
the North/South Pole
but is normally omitted:
South Africa North America West Germany
the, however, is used before east/west etc. when these are nouns:
the north of Spain the West (geographical)
the Middle East the West (political)
Compare Go north (adverb: in a northerly direction) with He lives in the north (noun: an area
in the north).
F the is used before other proper names consisting of adjective + noun or noun + of + noun:
the National Gallery the Tower of London
It is also used before names of choirs, orchestras, pop groups etc.:
the Bach Choir the Philadelphia Orchestra the Beatles
and before names of newspapers (The Times) and ships (the Great Britain).
A Practical English Grammar 12
G the with names of people has a very limited use. the + plural surname can be used to mean
'the . . . family':
the Smiths = Mr and Mrs Smith (and children)
the + singular name + clause/phrase can be used to distinguish one person from another of
the same name:
We have two Mr Smiths. Which do you want? ~ I want the Mr Smith who signed this
letter.
the is used before titles containing of (the Duke of York) but it is not used before other titles
or ranks (Lord Olivier, Captain Cook), though if someone is referred to by title/rank alone the
is used:
The earl expected . . . The captain ordered . . .
Letters written to two or more unmarried sisters jointly may be addressed The Misses +
surname: The Misses Smith.
7 Omission of the
A The definite article is not used:
1 Before names of places except as shown above, or before names of people.
2 Before abstract nouns except when they are used in a particular sense;
Men fear death but The death a/the Prime Minister left his party without a leader.
3 After a noun in the possessive case, or a possessive adjective:
the boy's uncle = the uncle of the boy It is my (blue) book = The (blue) book is mine.
4 Before names of meals (but see 3 C):
The Scots have porridge/or breakfast but The wedding breakfast was held in
her/other's house.
5 Before names of games: He plays golf.
6 Before parts of the body and articles of clothing, as these normally prefer a possessive
adjective:
Raise your right hand. fie took off his coat.
But notice that sentences of the type:
She seized the child's collar.
I patted his shoulder.
The brick hit John's face.
could be expressed:
She seized the child by the collar.
I patted him on the shoulder.
The brick hit John in the face.
Similarly in the passive:
He was hit on the head. He was cut in the hand.
B Note that in some European languages the definite article is used before indefinite plural
nouns but that in English the is never used in this way:
Women are expected to like babies, (i.e. women in general)
Big hotels all over the world are very much the same.
If we put the before women in the first example, it would mean that we were referring to a
particular group of women.
C nature, where it means the spirit creating and motivating the world of plants and animals etc.,
is used without the:
If you interfere with nature you will suffer for it.
8 Omission of the before home, before church, hospital, prison, school etc. and before
work, sea and town
A home
When home is used alone, i.e. is not preceded or followed by a descriptive word or phrase,
the is omitted:
He is at home.
home used alone can be placed directly after a verb of motion, i.e. it can be treated as an
adverb:
A Practical English Grammar 13
He went home. I arrived home after dark.
But when home is preceded or followed by a descriptive word or phrase it is treated like any
other noun:
They went to their new home.
We arrived at the bride's home.
For some years this was the home of your queen.
A mud hut was the only home he had ever known.
B bed, church, court, hospital, prison, school/college/university
the is not used before the nouns listed above when these places are
visited or used for their primary purpose. We go:
to bed to sleep or as invalids to hospital as patients
to church to pray to prison as prisoners
to court as litigants etc. to school/college/university to study
Similarly we can be:
in bed, sleeping or resting in hospital as patients
at church as worshippers at school etc. as students
in court as witnesses etc.
We can be/get back (or be/get home) from school/college/university.
We can leave school, leave hospital, be released from prison.
When these places are visited or used for other reasons the is necessary:
I went to the church to see the stained glass.
He goes to the prison sometimes to give lectures.
C sea
We go to sea as sailors. To be at sea = to be on a voyage (as passengers or crew).
But to go to or be at the sea = to go to or be at the seaside. We can also live by/near the sea.
D work and office
work (= place of work) is used without the:
He's on his way to work. He is at work.
He isn't back from work yet.
Note that at work can also mean 'working'; hard at work = working hard:
He's hard at work on a new picture.
office (= place of work) needs the: He is at/in the office.
To be in office (without the) means to hold an official (usually political) position. To be out of
office = to be no longer in power.
E town
the can be omitted when speaking of the subject's or speaker's own town:
We go to town sometimes to buy clothes.
We were in town last Monday.
9 this/these, that/those (demonstrative adjectives and pronouns)
A Used as adjectives, they agree with their nouns in number. They are the only adjectives to do
this.
This beach was quite empty last year.
This exhibition will be open until the end of May.
These people come from that hotel over there.
What does that notice say?
That exhibition closed a month ago.
He was dismissed on the 13th. That night the factory went on fire.
Do you see those birds at the top of the tree?
this/these/that/those + noun + of + yours/hers etc. or Ann's etc. is sometimes, for
emphasis, used instead of your/her etc. + noun:
This diet of mine/My diet isn't having much effect.
That car of Ann 's/Ann's car is always breaking down.
Remarks made with these phrases are usually, though not necessarily always, unfavourable,
B this/these, that/those used as pronouns:
This is my umbrella. That's yours.
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These are the old classrooms. Those are the new ones.
Who's that (man over there)? ~ That's Tom Jones.
After a radio programme:
That was the concerto in C minor by Vivaldi.
this is is possible in introductions:
ANN (to TOM): This is my brother Hugh.
ANN (to HUGH): Hugh, this is Tom Jones.
TELEPHONE CALLER: Good morning. This is/I am Tom Jones . . .
I am is slightly more formal than This is and is more likely to be used when the caller is a
stranger to the other person. The caller's name + here (Tom here) is more informal than This
is. those can be followed by a defining relative clause:
Those who couldn't walk were carried on stretchers.
this/that can represent a previously mentioned noun, phrase or clause:
They're digging up my mad. They do this every summer.
He said I wasn 't a good wife. Wasn 't that a horrible thing to say?
C this/these, that/those used with one/ones
When there is some idea of comparison or selection, the pronoun one/ones is often placed
after these demonstratives, but it is not essential except when this etc. is followed by an
adjective:
This chair is too low. I'll sit in that (one).
I like this (one) best.
I like this blue one/these blue ones.
A Practical English Grammar 15
2 Nouns
10 Kinds and function
A There are four kinds of noun in English:
Common nouns: dog. man, table
Proper nouns: France, Madrid, Mrs Smith, Tom
Abstract nouns: beauty, chanty, courage, fear. joy
Collective nouns: crowd, flock, group, swarm, team
B A noun can function as:
The subject of a verb: Tom arrived.
The complement of the verbs be, become, seem: Tom is an actor.
The object of a verb: I saw Tom.
The object of a preposition: / spoke to Tom.
A noun can also be in the possessive case: Tom's books.
11 Gender
A Masculine: men, boys and male animals (pronoun he/they).
Feminine: women, girls and female animals (pronoun she/they).
Neuter: inanimate things, animals whose sex we don't know and sometimes babies whose
sex we don't know (pronoun it/they).
Exceptions: ships and sometimes cars and other vehicles when regarded with affection or
respect are considered feminine. Countries when referred to by name are also normally
considered feminine.
The ship struck an iceberg, which tore a huge hole in her side.
Scotland lost many of her bravest men in two great rebellions.
B Masculine/feminine nouns denoting people
1 Different forms;
(a) boy, girl gentleman, lady son, daughter
bachelor, spinster husband, wife uncle, aunt
bridegroom, bride man, woman widower, widow
father, mother nephew, niece
Main exceptions:
baby infant relative
child parent spouse
cousin relation teenager
(b) duke, duchess king, queen prince, princess
earl, countess lord, lady
2 The majority of nouns indicating occupation have the same form:
artist cook driver guide
assistant dancer doctor etc.
Main exceptions:
actor, actress host, hostess
conductor, conductress manager, manageress
heir, Heiress steward, stewardess
hero, heroine waiter, waitress
Also salesman, saleswoman etc., but sometimes -person is used instead of -man, -woman:
salesperson, spokesperson.
C Domestic animals and many of the larger wild animals have different forms:
bull, cow duck, drake ram, ewe stallion, mare
cock, hen gander, goose stag, doe tiger, tigress
dog, bitch lion, lioness
Others have the same form.
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12 Plurals
A The plural of a noun is usually made by adding s to the singular:
day, days dog, dogs house, houses
s is pronounced /s/ after a p, k or f sound. Otherwise it is pronounced /z/.
When s is placed after ce, ge, se or ze an extra syllable (/iz/) is added to the spoken word.
Other plural forms
B Nouns ending in o or ch, sh. ss or x form their plural by adding es:
tomato, tomatoes brush, brushes box, boxes
church, churches kiss, kisses
But words of foreign origin or abbreviated words ending in o add s only:
dynamo, dynamos kimono, kimonos piano, pianos
kilo, kilos photo, photos soprano, sopranos
When es is placed after ch, sh, ss or x an extra syllable (/iz/) is added to the spoken word.
C Nouns ending in y following a consonant form their plural by dropping the y and adding ies:
baby, babies country, countries fly, flies lady, ladies
Nouns ending in y following a vowel form their plural by adding s:
boy, boys day. days donkey, donkeys guy, guys
D Twelve nouns ending in f or fe drop the f or fe and add ves. These nouns are calf. half, knife,
leaf. life, loaf, self. sheaf, shelf, thief, wife, wolf:
loaf, loaves wife, wives wolf. wolves etc.
The nouns hoof, scar/and wharf take either s or ves in the plural:
hoofs or hooves scarfs or scarves wharfs or wharves
Other words ending in f or fe add s in the ordinary way:
cliff, cliffs handkerchief, handkerchiefs safe, safes
E A few nouns form their plural by a vowel change:
foot. feet louse, lice mouse, mice woman, women
goose, geese man, men tooth, teeth
The plurals of child and ox are children, oxen.
F Names of certain creatures do not change in the plural.
fish is normally unchanged, fishes exists but is uncommon. Some types of fish do not
normally change in the plural:
carp pike salmon trout
cod plaice squid turbot
mackerel
but if used in a plural sense they would take a plural verb. Others add s:
crabs herrings sardines
eels lobsters sharks
deer and sheep do not change: one sheep, two sheep.
Sportsmen who shoot duck, partridge, pheasant etc. use the same form for singular and
plural. But other people normally add s for the plural: ducks, partridges, pheasants.
The word game. used by sportsmen to mean an animal/animals hunted, is always in the
singular, and takes a singular verb.
G A few other words don't change:
aircraft, craft (boat/boats) quid (slang for £1}
counsel (barristers working in court)
Some measurements and numbers do not change (see chapter 36).
For uncountable nouns, see 13.
H Collective nouns, crew, family, team etc.. can take a singular or plurai verb; singular if we
consider the word to mean a single group or unit:
Our team is the best
or plural if we take it to mean a number of individuals:
Our team are wearing their new jerseys.
When a possessive adjective is necessary, a plural verb with their is more usual than a
singular verb with its, though sometimes both are possible:
The Jury is considering its verdict.
A Practical English Grammar 17
The jury are considering their verdict.
I Certain words are always plural and take a plural verb:
Clothes police
garments consisting of two parts:
breeches pants pyjama trousers etc.
and tools and instruments consisting of two parts:
binoculars pliers scissors spectacles
glasses scales shears etc.
Also certain other words including:
arms (weapons) particulars
damages (compensation) premises/quarters
earnings riches
goods/wares savings
greens (vegetables) spirits (alcohol)
grounds stairs
outskirts surroundings
pains (trouble/effort) valuables
J A number words ending in ics, acoustics, athletics, ethics, hysterics. mathematics, physics,
politics etc., which are plural in form, normally take a plural verb:
His mathematics are weak.
But names of sciences can sometimes be considered singular:
Mathematics is an exact science.
K Words plural in form but singular in meaning include news:
The news is good
certain diseases:
mumps rickets shingles
and certain games:
billiards darts draughts bowls dominoes
L Some words which retain their original Greek or Latin forms make their plurals according to
the rules of Greek and Latin:
crisis, crises phenomenon, phenomena
erratum, errata radius, radii
memorandum, memoranda terminus, termini
oasis, oases
But some follow the English rules:
dogma, dogmas gymnasium, gymnasiums
formula, formulas (though formulae is used by scientists)
Sometimes there are two plural forms with different meanings:
appendix, appendixes or appendices (medical terms)
appendix, appendices (addition/s to a book)
index, indexes (in books), indices (in mathematics)
Musicians usually prefer Italian plural forms for Italian musical terms:
libretto, libretti tempo, tempi
But s is also possible: librettos, tempos.
M Compound nouns
1 Normally the last word is made plural:
boy-friends break-ins travel agents
But where man and woman is prefixed both parts are made plural:
men drivers women drivers
2 The first word is made plural with compounds formed of verb + er nouns + adverbs:
hangers-on lookers-on runners-up
and with compounds composed of noun + preposition + noun:
ladies-in-waiting sisters-in-law wards of court
3 Initials can be made plural:
MPs (Members of Parliament)
VIPs (very important persons)
OAPs (old age pensioners)
UFOs (unidentified flying objects)
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13 Uncountable nouns (also known as non-count nouns or mass nouns)
A1 Names of substances considered generally:
bread cream gold paper tea
beer dust ice sand wafer
cloth gin jam soap wine
coffee glass oil stone wood
2 Abstract nouns:
advice experience horror pity
beauty fear information relief
courage help knowledge suspicion
death hope mercy work
3 Also considered uncountable in English:
baggage damage luggage shopping
camping furniture parking weather
These, with hair, information, knowledge, news, rubbish, are sometimes countable in other
languages.
B Uncountable nouns are always singular and are not used with a/an:
I don't want (any) advice or help. I want (some) information.
He has had no experience in this sort of work.
These nouns are often preceded by some, any, no, a little etc. or by nouns such as bit.
piece, slice etc. + of:
a bit of news a grain of sand a pot of jam
a cake of soap a pane of glass a sheet of paper
a drop of oil a piece of advice
C Many of the nouns in the above groups can be used in a particular sense and are then
countable and can take a/an in the singular. Some examples are given below.
hair (all the hair on one's head) is considered uncountable, but if we consider each hair
separately we say one hair, two hairs etc.:
Her hair is black. Whenever she finds a grey hair she pulls it out.
We drink beer, coffee, gin, but we can ask for a (cup of) coffee, a gin, two gins etc. We drink
out of glasses. We can walk in woods.
experience meaning 'something which happened to someone' is countable:
He had an exciting experience/some exciting experiences
(= adventure/s) last week.
work meaning 'occupation/employment/a job/jobs' is singular:
He is looking/or work/for a job. I do homework.
She does housework.
But roadworks means 'repair of roads'.
works (plural only) can mean 'factory' or 'moving parts of a machine'.
works (usually plural) can be used of literary or musical compositions:
Shakespeare's complete works.
D Some abstract nouns can be used in a particular sense with a/an, but in the singular only:
a help:
My children are a great help to me. A good map would be a help.
a relief:
It was a relief to sit down.
a knowledge + of:
He had a good knowledge of mathematics.
a dislike/dread/hatred/horror/love + of is also possible:
a love of music a hatred of violence
a mercy/pity/shame/wonder can be used with that-clauses introduced by it:
It's a pity you weren't here. It's a shame he wasn't paid.
E a fear/fears, a hope/hopes, a suspicion/suspicions
These can be used with that-clauses introduced by there:
There is a fear/There are fears that he has been murdered.
We can also have a suspicion that. . .
A Practical English Grammar 19
Something can arouse a fear/fears, a hope/hopes, a suspicion/suspicions.
14 The form of the possessive/genitive case
A 's is used with singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in s:
a man's job the people's choice
men's work the crew's quarters
a woman's intuition the horse's mouth
the butcher's (shop) the bull's horns
a child's voice women's clothes
the children's room Russia's exports
B A simple apostrophe (') is used with plural nouns ending in s:
a girls' school the students' hostel
the eagles' nest the Smiths' car
C Classical names ending in s usually add only the apostrophe:
Pythagoras' Theorem Archimedes' Law Sophocles' plays
D Other names ending in s can take 's or the apostrophe alone;
Mr Jones's (w Mr Jones' house) Yeats's (or Yeats') poems
E With compounds, the last word takes the 's:
my brother-in-law's guitar
Names consisting of several words are treated similarly:
Henry the Eighth's wives the Prince of Wales's helicopter
's can also be used after initials:
the PM's secretary the MP's briefcase the VIP's escort
Note that when the possessive case is used, the article before the person or thing
'possessed' disappears:
the daughter of the politician = the politician's daughter
the intervention of America = America's intervention
the plays of Shakespeare = Shakespeare's plays
15 Use of the possessive/genitive case and of + noun
A The possessive case is chiefly used of people, countries or animals as shown above- It can
also be used:
1 Of ships and boats: the ship's bell. the yacht's mast
2 Of planes, trains, cars and other vehicles, though here the of construction is safer:
a glider's wings or the wings of a glider the train's heating system or the heating system of the
train
3 In time expressions:
a week's holiday today's paper tomorrow's weather
in two years' time ten minutes' break two hours' delay
a ten-minute break, a two-hour delay are also possible:
We have ten minutes' break/a ten-minute break.
4 In expressions of money + worth:
£1 's worth of stamps ten dollars' worth of ice-cream
5 With for + noun + sake: for heaven's sake, for goodness' sake
6 In a few expressions such as:
a stone's throw Journey's end the water's edge
7 We can say either a winter's day or a winter day and a summer's day or a summer day, but
we cannot make spring or autumn possessive, except when they are personified: Autumn's
return.
8 Sometimes certain nouns can be used in the possessive case without the second noun. a/the
baker's/butcher's/chemist's/florist's etc. can mean 'a/the baker's/butcher's etc. shop'. Similarly,
a/the house agent's/travel agent's etc. (office) and the dentist 's/doctor 's/vet 's (surgery):
You can buy it at the chemist's. He's going to the dentist's.
Names of the owners of some businesses can be used similarly:
Sotheby's, Claridge's
Some very well-known shops etc. call themselves by the possessive form and some drop the
apostrophe: Foyles, Harrods.
Names of people can sometimes be used similarly to mean ‘.. . 's house':
We had lunch at Bill's. We met at Ann's.
B of + noun is used for possession:
A Practical English Grammar 20